N° 7 2021 
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of biological organization on a reef-building mussel, for example at 
the level of the DNA. Finally, in a first in the field of aquatic plant 
pathology, a recent laboratory investigation documented that 
seagrass morphology and ultrastructure can be affected by noise, 
with potential implications for the ecology of seagrass meadows 
(Sole et al., 2021). 
Human studies have clearly shown the health consequences of 
chronic exposure to noise, principally stress-related (World Health 
Organization, 2011). Despite its potential importance, only very few 
studies have been undertaken on stress in marine organisms, due 
to exposure to underwater noise. Those that have been conducted 
have indicated a stress response (e.g. increased heart rate, changes 
in levels of stress-related hormones) to exposure of both impulsive 
and continuous noise both in marine mammals and fishes (see Miksis 
et al., 2001; Wysocki et al., 2006; Rolland et al., 2012; Debusschere 
et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2021). Although most investigations on this 
z:opic have been performed in captivity, one field study on North 
Atlantic right whales found some evidence for a reduction in stress 
when ambient noise levels were reduced, due to a decrease in 
shipping activity after the events of 11 September 2001 (Rolland 
et al. 2012).